Chronic pain is maintained in part by central sensitization, a phenomenon of synaptic
plasticity, and increased neuronal responsiveness in central pain pathways after painful …

Activation of glial cells and neuro–glial interactions are emerging as key mechanisms
underlying chronic pain. Accumulating evidence has implicated 3 types of glial cells in the …

General anesthesia (GA) can produce analgesia (loss of pain) independent of inducing loss
of consciousness, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that GA …

Chemokines constitute a family of chemoattractant cytokines and are subdivided into four
families on the basis of the number and spacing of the conserved cysteine residues in the N …

Comorbid depression and chronic pain are highly prevalent in individuals suffering from
physical illness. Here, we critically examine the possibility that inflammation is the common …

Interleukin-6 is an inflammatory cytokine with wide-ranging biological effects. It has been
widely demonstrated that neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the development of …

Inflammatory responses in the peripheral (PNS) and central nervous systems (CNS) play
key roles in the development and persistence of many pathologic pain states. 1 Certain …

Glia plays a crucial role in the maintenance of neuronal homeostasis in the central nervous
system. The microglial production of immune factors is believed to play an important role in …

Hyperalgesia and allodynia are frequent symptoms of disease and may be useful
adaptations to protect vulnerable tissues. Both may, however, also emerge as diseases in …

In a large proportion of individuals nervous system damage may lead to a debilitating
chronic neuropathic pain. Such pain may now be considered a neuro-immune disorder …