The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a complex mesencephalic structure involved in the
integration and execution of active and passive self-protective behaviors against imminent …

Organisms learn to gain reward and avoid punishment through action–outcome
associations. Reinforcement learning (RL) offers a critical framework to understand …

Working memory has been examined extensively using the N-back task. However, less is
known about the neural bases underlying individual variation in the accuracy rate (AR) and …

Although laboratory studies indicate alcohol reduces pain intensity and increases pain
threshold, these effects likely do not completely explain perceived pain relief from alcohol …

Background Subjective feeling of social isolation, as can be measured by perceived
burdensomeness (PB), is a major risk factor for alcohol misuse. Heightened PB is …

Craving reflects the subjective urge to use drugs and can be triggered by both positive and
negative emotional states. No studies have systematically investigated the relative roles of …

Background Using balanced placebo designs, seminal alcohol administration research has
shown individuals' beliefs about whether they have consumed alcohol, irrespective of the …

Positive alcohol expectancy (AE), a significant predictor of excessive alcohol consumption,
is associated with heightened drinking motivation and reduced control. As the insula …

Introduction The striatum mediates reward processing in addiction, and previous fMRI
(functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) studies have revealed abnormal striatofrontal …

Despite bariatric surgery being the most effective treatment for obesity, a proportion of
subjects have suboptimal weight loss post-surgery. Therefore, it is necessary to understand …