Norepinephrine is involved in intrinsic control of pain. Main sources of norepinephrine are
sympathetic nerves peripherally and noradrenergic brainstem nuclei A1–A7 centrally …

The flexion or flexor reflex (FR) recorded in the lower limbs in humans (LLFR) is a widely
investigated neurophysiological tool. It is a polysynaptic and multisegmental spinal …

Abstract Alpha 2-adrenoreceptor agonists (α 2-agonists) are commonly used in small animal
anaesthesia for their potent sedative and analgesic properties, although concerns about …

Endogenous pain regulatory system dysfunction appears to play a role in the maintenance
of chronic pain. An important component of the pain regulatory process is the functional …

Cold therapy is commonly used as a method to relieve pain and inflammation. This review
focuses primarily on two methods of cold therapy that have received recent attention: whole …

Norepinephrine contributes to antinociceptive, sedative, and sympatholytic responses in
vivo, and α2 adrenergic receptor (α2AR) agonists are used clinically to mimic these effects …

A clinical description of lower urinary tract disease (LUTD) in cats in 1925 [1] accurately
described the clinical signs and the disease, and reported it to be commonplace. The terms …

The treatment and management of chronic pain is a major challenge for clinicians. Chronic
pain is often underdiagnosed and undertreated, and there is a lack of awareness of the …

Medetomidine is a relatively new sedative analgesic in dogs and cats but some precautions
are required when using it. It is a potent α2-adrenoceptor agonist and stimulates receptors …

Objective. Cold therapy is used to relieve pain and inflammatory symptoms. The present
study was designed to determine the influence of long‐term regular exposure to acute cold …