The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death 1 (PD-1)
immune checkpoints are negative regulators of T-cell immune function. Inhibition of these …

The development of chronic infections and cancer is facilitated by a variety of immune
subversion mechanisms, such as the production of anti‐inflammatory cytokines, induction of …

The ability to control autoreactive T cells without inducing systemic immune suppression is
the major goal for treatment of autoimmune diseases. The key challenge is the safe and …

We now know that cancer is many different diseases, with great variation even within a
single histological subtype. With the current emphasis on developing personalized …

The immune checkpoint pathway consisting of the cell membrane-bound molecule
programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) and its ligand PD-L1 has been found to mediate …

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the leading causes of cancer-related mortality.
The principal treatment is surgical resection or liver transplantation, depending on whether …

Inhibitory signals through the PD-1 pathway regulate T cell activation, T cell tolerance, and T
cell exhaustion. Studies of PD-1 function have focused primarily on effector T cells. Far less …

The distinction between innate and adaptive immunity is one of the basic tenets of
immunology. The co-operation between these two arms of the immune system is a major …

The immune system employs several checkpoint pathways to regulate responses, maintain
homeostasis and prevent self-reactivity and autoimmunity. Tumor cells can hijack these …

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a pivotal role in the tumor microenvironment, which is known to
affect disease progression in many human malignancies. Infiltration by mature, active DCs …