Toxin–antitoxin systems are widespread in bacterial genomes. They are usually composed
of two elements: a toxin that inhibits an essential cellular process and an antitoxin that …

Bacterial toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are abundant genetic elements that encode a toxin
protein capable of inhibiting cell growth and an antitoxin that counteracts the toxin. The …

Type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxic protein
and its cognate antitoxin protein, the latter counteracting the toxicity of the former. While TA …

Integrons are versatile gene acquisition systems commonly found in bacterial genomes.
They are ancient elements that are a hot spot for genomic complexity, generating phenotypic …

Restriction-modification (RM) systems are ubiquitous and are often considered primitive
immune systems in bacteria. Their diversity and prevalence across the prokaryotic kingdom …

Persistence is a reversible and low-frequency phenomenon allowing a subpopulation of a
clonal bacterial population to survive antibiotic treatments. Upon removal of the antibiotic …

Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its
cognate antitoxin. The toxins of all known TA systems are proteins while the antitoxins are …

Integrons are genetic elements able to acquire and rearrange open reading frames (ORFs)
embedded in gene cassette units and convert them to functional genes by ensuring their …

Gene cassettes are small mobile elements, consisting of little more than a single gene and
recombination site, which are captured by larger elements called integrons. Several …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, stress-responsive genetic elements ubiquitous in microbial
genomes, are unusually abundant in the major human pathogen Mycobacterium …