Since cancer stem cells (CSCs) were first identified in leukemia in 1994, they have been
considered promising therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. These cells have self-renewal …

Macrophages play an important role in tissue homeostasis, tissue remodeling, immune
response, and progression of cancer. Consequently, macrophages exhibit significant …

Encoded in mammalian cells by 33 genes, the transforming growth factor–β (TGF-β) family
of secreted, homodimeric and heterodimeric proteins controls the differentiation of most, if …

Articular cartilage serves as a low-friction, load-bearing tissue without the support with blood
vessels, lymphatics and nerves, making its repair a big challenge. Transforming growth …

Numerous studies have demonstrated that endothelial cells are capable of undergoing
endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndMT), a newly recognized type of cellular …

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) is a pleiotropic cytokine that plays a key role in both
physiologic and pathologic conditions, including cancer. Importantly, TGFβ can exhibit both …

The mammary gland is a compound, branched tubuloalveolar structure and a major
characteristic of mammals. The mammary gland has evolved from epidermal apocrine …

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family members signal via heterotetrameric complexes
of type I and type II dual specificity kinase receptors. The activation and stability of the …

Elevated production of collagen-rich extracellular matrix is a hallmark of cancer-associated
fibroblasts (CAFs) and a central driver of cancer aggressiveness. Here we find that proline, a …

Abstract TGF-β 1–3 are unique multi-functional growth factors that are only expressed in
mammals, and mainly secreted and stored as a latent complex in the extracellular matrix …