Approximately two decades after the first pioneering analyses, the study of shape asymmetry
with the methods of geometric morphometrics has matured and is a burgeoning field. New …

The foundations of geometric morphometrics were worked out about 30 years ago and have
continually been refined and extended. What has remained as a central thrust and source of …

Although most studies on integration and modularity have focused on variation among
individuals within populations or species, this is not the only level of variation for which …

Natural history collections provide an immense record of biodiversity on Earth. These
repositories have traditionally been used to address fundamental questions in …

Morphological integration and modularity have become central concepts in evolutionary
biology and geometric morphometrics. This review summarizes the most frequently used …

Proper functioning of complex phenotypes requires that multiple traits work together.
Examination of relationships among traits within and between complex characters and how …

When populations experience suboptimal conditions, the mechanisms involved in the
regulation of phenotypic variation can be challenged, resulting in increased phenotypic …

Accurate measurement of facial sexual dimorphism is useful to understanding facial
anatomy and specifically how faces influence, and have been influenced by, sexual …

Allometry refers to the ways in which organismal shape is associated with size. It is a special
case of integration, or the tendency for traits to covary, in that variation in size is ubiquitous …

Many morphological, behavioral, physiological, and life-history traits covary across the
biological scales of individuals, populations, and species. However, the processes that …