Plants have developed a complex defense system against diverse pests and pathogens.
Once pathogens overcome mechanical barriers to infection, plant receptors initiate signaling …

Interest in excitotoxicity expanded following its implication in the pathogenesis of ischemic
brain injury in the 1980s, but waned subsequent to the failure of N-methyl-D-aspartate …

Growth factors can promote cell survival by activating the phosphatidylinositide-3′-OH
kinase and its downstream target, the serine-threonine kinase Akt. However, the mechanism …

REVIEW Bcl-2 and related cytoplasmic proteins are key regulators of apoptosis, the cell
suicide program critical for development, tissue homeostasis, and protection against …

Heme oxygenases (HO) catabolize free heme, that is, iron (Fe) protoporphyrin (IX), into
equimolar amounts of Fe2+, carbon monoxide (CO), and biliverdin. The stress-responsive …

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) binding to the TNF receptor (TNFR) potentially initiates
apoptosis and activates the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), which …

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as an important animal model in
various fields including neurobiology, developmental biology, and genetics. Characteristics …

▪ Abstract Apoptosis, a physiological process for killing cells, is critical for the normal
development and function of multicellular organisms. Abnormalities in cell death control can …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a preferential
loss of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigrapars compacta. Although the …

Caspases play a central role in apoptosis, a well-studied pathway of programmed cell death.
Other programs of death potentially involving necrosis and autophagy may exist, but their …