In nature, animals display defensive behaviors that reflect the spatiotemporal distance of
threats. Laboratory-based paradigms that elicit specific defensive responses in rodents have …

The dentate gyrus (DG) has a key role in hippocampal memory formation. Intriguingly, DG
lesions impair many, but not all, hippocampus-dependent mnemonic functions, indicating …

This article reviews the behavioral neuroscience of extinction, the phenomenon in which a
behavior that has been acquired through Pavlovian or instrumental (operant) learning …

Contexts surround and imbue meaning to events; they are essential for recollecting the past,
interpreting the present and anticipating the future. Indeed, the brain's capacity to …

Learned fear often relapses after extinction, suggesting that extinction training generates a
new memory that coexists with the original fear memory; however, the mechanisms …

Severe behavioural deficits in psychiatric diseases such as autism and schizophrenia have
been hypothesized to arise from elevations in the cellular balance of excitation and …

One literature treats the hippocampus as a purely cognitive structure involved in memory;
another treats it as a regulator of emotion whose dysfunction leads to psychopathology. We …

Stress has a critical role in the development and expression of many psychiatric disorders,
and is a defining feature of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stress also limits the …

Optogenetic tools have provided a new way to establish causal relationships between brain
activity and behaviour in health and disease. Although no animal model captures human …

The brain, endocrine, and immune systems are inextricably linked. Immune molecules have
a powerful impact on neuroendocrine function, including hormone–behavior interactions …