Venom (toxins) is an important trait evolved along the evolutionary tree of animals. Our
knowledges on venoms, such as their origins and loss, the biological relevance and the …

Chemical defenses are widespread among animals, and the compounds involved may be
either synthesized from nontoxic precursors or sequestered from an environmental source …

Throughout their lives animals must complete many tasks, including finding food, avoiding
predators, attracting mates, and navigating through a complex and dynamic environment …

Background The medicinal plants used by herbalists in Kenya have not been well
documented, despite their widespread use. The threat of complete disappearance of the …

The dazzling variation in plant chemistry is a primary mediator of trophic interactions,
including herbivory, predation, parasitism, and disease. At the same time, such interactions …

Despite extensive study of poisonous and venomous organisms and the toxins they
produce, a review of the literature reveals inconsistency and ambiguity in the definitions of …

For decades, comparative biologists have recognized the importance of microbial partners
in facilitating herbivory as a successful feeding strategy. Most of this success is attributed to …

Self-amputation (autotomy) of the tail is essential for the survival of many lizards.
Accordingly, it has garnered the attention of scientists for more than 200 years. Several …

In this review I survey pelage and skin colouration patterns of the 29 orders of extant
mammals and assess their functional significance. The vast majority of mammals are shades …

Aposematic coloration is traditionally considered to signal unpalatability or toxicity. In
mammals, most research has focused on just one form of defense, namely, noxious anal …