The past decade has seen several critical advances in our understanding of hypothalamic–
pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis regulation. Homeostatic physiological circuits need to integrate …

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is the major neuroendocrine axis regulating
homeostasis in mammals. Glucocorticoid hormones are rapidly synthesized and secreted …

Glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol and corticosterone-CORT) are the effector hormones of
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis neuroendocrine system. CORT is a systemic …

Adrenal glucocorticoids are major modulators of multiple functions, including energy
metabolism, stress responses, immunity, and cognition. The endogenous secretion of …

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a condition characterized by an absolute or relative deficiency of
adrenal cortisol production. Primary AI (PAI) is rare and is caused by direct adrenal failure …

Rhythms are intrinsic to endocrine systems, and disruption of these hormone oscillations
occurs at very early stages of the disease. Because adrenal hormones are secreted with …

The magnitude, invasiveness, and duration of surgery are central in determining the degree
of the body's integrated stress response. Major open vascular and abdominal surgery, joint …

Brain cells are continuously exposed to corticosteroid hormones, although the levels vary
(eg, after stress). Corticosteroids alter neural activity via two receptor types …

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is the archetypal polypeptide precursor of hormones and
neuropeptides. In this review, we examine the variability in the individual peptides produced …

Stress activates a complex network of hormones known as the hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is dysregulated in chronic stress and psychiatric …