Addictive drugs have in common that they are voluntarily self-administered by laboratory
animals (usually avidly), and that they enhance the functioning of the reward circuitry of the …

Stress is commonly regarded as an important trigger for relapse and a significant factor that
promotes increased motivation to drink in some individuals. However, the relationship …

Stress is defined as a state of perturbed homeostasis following endangerment that evokes
manifold adaptive reactions, which are summarized as the stress response. In the case of …

Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by loss of control over intake
and dysregulation of stress-related brain emotional systems. Since the discovery by Wylie …

In drug addiction, the transition from casual drug use to dependence has been linked to a
shift away from positive reinforcement and toward negative reinforcement. That is, drugs …

Alcoholism is a chronic relapsing disorder. Major characteristics observed in alcoholics
during an initial period of alcohol abstinence are altered physiological functions and a …

Abstract Background Dr. Athina Markou sought treatments for a common neural substrate
shared by depression and drug dependence. Antagonists of corticotropin-releasing factor …

This paper is the 28th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning
the endogenous opioid system, now spanning over a quarter-century of research. It …

Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by a compulsion to seek
and take drugs, the development of dependence, and the manifestation of a negative …

Clinical studies link disruption of the neuroendocrine stress system with alcoholism, but
remaining unknown is whether functional differences in the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal …