Tremendous strides have been made in our understanding of the neurobiological substrates
of memory–the so-called memory “engram”. Here, we integrate recent progress in the …

Episodic memories are multifaceted and malleable, capable of being transformed with time
and experience at both the neural level and psychological level. At the neural level, episodic …

Fear memory is the best-studied form of memory. It was thoroughly investigated in the past
60 years mostly using two classical conditioning procedures (contextual fear conditioning …

Fear memories allow animals to avoid danger, thereby increasing their chances of survival.
Fear memories can be retrieved long after learning,, but little is known about how retrieval …

De novo transcription of DNA is a fundamental requirement for the formation of long-term
memory. It is required during both consolidation and reconsolidation, the posttraining and …

Highlights•The nature of a memory trace, not its age, determines its hippocampal
dependence.•Remote memories rich in perceptual detail still engage the hippocampus …

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder associated with memories of
traumatic experiences. Conditioned fear memory, a representative model of traumatic …

Contextual fear memory becomes less context-specific over time, a phenomenon referred to
as contextual fear generalization. Overgeneralization of contextual fear memory is a core …

Stressful and emotionally arousing experiences activate hormonal and brain systems that
create strong memories. Extensive evidence indicates that this strengthening effect involves …

We review the literature on systems consolidation by providing a brief history of the field to
place the current research in proper perspective. We cover the literature on both humans …