Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis
and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in …

Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) drugs have revolutionized the
treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (NVAMD). However, many …

The human retina contains three types of glial cells: microglia and two types of macroglia,
astrocytes and Müller cells. Macroglia provide homeostatic and metabolic support to …

The mammalian retina provides an excellent opportunity to study glia–neuron interactions
and the interactions of glia with blood vessels. Three main types of glial cells are found in …

Müller cells, the major type of glial cells in the retina, are responsible for the homeostatic and
metabolic support of retinal neurons. By mediating transcellular ion, water, and bicarbonate …

Neuronal activity results in increased blood flow in the brain, a response named functional
hyperemia. Astrocytes play an important role in mediating this response. Neurotransmitters …

Inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels allow K+ to move more easily into rather than out of the
cell. They have diverse physiological functions depending on their type and their location …

We review the cellular and physiological mechanisms responsible for the regulation of blood
flow in the retina and choroid in health and disease. Due to the intrinsic light sensitivity of the …

Astrocytes participate in all essential CNS functions, including blood flow regulation, energy
metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defence, neurotransmission, and adult …

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is one of the most abundant molecules in the brain and is particularly
prevalent in astrocytic membranes at the blood-brain and brain-liquor interfaces. While …