Almost all bacteria and many archaea contain genes whose expression inhibits cell growth
and may lead to cell death when overproduced, reminiscent of apoptotic genes in higher …

Although the phenomenon of bacterial cell death and lysis has been studied for over 100
years, the contribution of these important processes to bacterial physiology and …

Genes for toxin-antitoxin (TA) complexes are widespread in prokaryote genomes, and
species frequently possess tens of plasmid and chromosomal TA loci. The complexes are …

A precise understanding of the genomic organization into transcriptional units and their
regulation is essential for our comprehension of opportunistic human pathogens and how …

Toxin–antitoxin systems (TAs) are ubiquitous among bacteria and play a crucial role in the
dissemination and evolution of antibiotic resistance, such as maintaining multi-resistant …

In their initial stages of discovery, prokaryotic toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems were confined to
bacterial plasmids where they function to mediate the maintenance and stability of usually …

Most genomes of bacteria contain toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems. These gene systems encode
a toxic protein and its cognate antitoxin. Upon antitoxin degradation, the toxin induces cell …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are prevalent in bacteria and archaea. Although not essential
for normal cell growth, TA systems are implicated in multiple cellular functions associated …

Extrachromosomal elements are ubiquitous in the prokaryotic world and play important roles
in the adaptation and survival of cell populations, especially in changing environments …

Biotechnical production processes often operate with plasmid‐based expression systems in
well‐established prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts such as Escherichia coli or …