The adaptive immune system (AIS) in mammals, which is centred on lymphocytes bearing
antigen receptors that are generated by somatic recombination, arose approximately 500 …

Until recently, it was widely accepted that invertebrates fail to show a high degree of
specificity and memory in their immune strategies. Recent reports have challenged this view …

What counts as an individual in the living world? What does it mean for a living thing to
remain the same through time, while constantly changing? These questions are the province …

T-cell alloreactivity is a well-established phenomenon, but its molecular basis has remained
enigmatic. Although there are differences between T-cell recognition of conventional and …

Hemocytes are the immune effectors in clams, directing cellular but also humoral defences.
In the Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and the carpet shell clam (Ruditapes …

The artificial transfer of tissues or cells between genetically diverse individuals elicits an
immune response that is adaptive and specific. This response is orchestrated by T …

Botryllus schlosseri, a cosmopolitan colonial ascidian reared in the laboratory for more than
50 years, reproduces both sexually and asexually and is used as a model organism for …

The squid–vibrio symbiosis is an experimental system being studied as a model of the
chronic colonization of animal epithelia by bacterial partners. One principal question being …

Hermaphroditic organisms avoid inbreeding by a system of self-incompatibility (SI). A
primitive chordate (ascidian) Ciona intestinalis is an example of such an organism, but the …

It can be seen that the insects are the still attracting most research and researchers.
However, an increasing interest is emerging to study new invertebrate groups, especially …