Animal hosts have initiated myriad symbiotic associations with microorganisms and often
have maintained these symbioses for millions of years, spanning drastic changes in …

Bacterial endosymbionts induce dramatic phenotypes in their arthropod hosts, including
cytoplasmic incompatibility, feminization, parthenogenesis, male killing, parasitoid defense …

Bacterial AB toxins are secreted key virulence factors that are internalized by target cells
through receptor-mediated endocytosis, translocating their enzymatic domain to the cytosol …

Insect host–parasitoid interactions abound in nature and are characterized by a high degree
of host specialization. In addition to their behavioral and immune defenses, many host …

Insects often harbour heritable symbionts that provide defence against specialized natural
enemies, yet little is known about symbiont protection when hosts face simultaneous threats …

Heritable, facultative symbionts are common in arthropods, often functioning in host defence.
Despite moderately reduced genomes, facultative symbionts retain evolutionary potential …

Aphids are a large family of phloem-sap feeders. They typically rely on a single bacterial
endosymbiont, Buchnera aphidicola, to supply them with essential nutrients lacking in their …

The phyllosphere microbiome plays an important role in plant fitness. Recently,
bacteriophages have been shown to play a role in shaping the bacterial community …

All organisms have evolved a wide range of strategies to protect against natural enemies,
from complex avoidance behaviours to sophisticated immune systems, and insects are no …

Background Most phages infect free-living bacteria but a few have been identified that infect
heritable symbionts of insects or other eukaryotes. Heritable symbionts are usually …