Objectives: Most contemporary epidemiologic studies require complex analytical methods to
adjust for bias and confounding. New methods are constantly being developed, and older …

Objectives: Health insurers, physicians, and patients worldwide need information on the
comparative effectiveness and safety of prescription drugs in routine care. Nonrandomized …

Objectives: The goal of comparative effectiveness analysis is to examine the relationship
between two variables, treatment, or exposure and effectiveness or outcome. Unlike data …

Abstract Objective In both the United States and Europe there has been an increased
interest in using comparative effectiveness research of interventions to inform health policy …

There is a little doubt that the topic of the target article is extremely important—how to
provide guidance for making medical decisions that are based on evidence concerning …

For estimating causal effects of treatments, randomized experiments are generally
considered the gold standard. Nevertheless, they are often infeasible to conduct for a variety …

Trialists and epidemiologists often employ different terminology to refer to biases in
randomized trials and observational studies, even though many biases have a similar …

An effect is attributable to treatment if it would not have been observed had the individual
been exposed to control instead. Extending earlier results on attributable effects in …

Experiments offer more reliable evidence on causation than observational studies, which is
not to gainsay the contribution to knowledge from observation. Experiments should be …

This paper addresses strategies for selecting variables for adjustment in non‐experimental
comparative effectiveness research and uses causal graphs to illustrate the causal network …